Vietnamese cities and the State in pre-modern era.

The first section takes issue with the assertion made that the urban genesis in Vietnam was nothing but the product of the Chinese colonization, and attempts to demonstrate that Vietnamese cities were the outcome of the internal development of the indigenous society. The second section, which focuses on various tales on the guardian spirits of the Thang Long capital cited in Sino- Vietnamese documents, further supports this point. The third section discusses the political significance of the walled cities and the city walls built by the rulers of independent Vietnam. The fourth section argues that cities had two functions: political and ritual centers fortified by walls; and surrounding quarters where commoners engaged in commercial and productive activities.-from English summary